Part I (Most Vigorous Among Streams) Part II (Varuṇa tears open a path) Part III (Like a bellowing bull) Part IV (As a king marches to battle)
Note: I have used the following abbreviations to denote translations by different authors. One of the translations (which I found to be extremely useful) is in Hindi. Apologies in advance to those who cannot read Hindi. HHW: refers to the translation of the ṛgveda by H.H.Wilson. GR: Translation by Griffiths. PSDS: From the Hindi Translation ऋग्वेद का सुबोध भाष्य by Pandit Sripada Damodara Satalvalekar. PC: refers to personal comments. Thus, in the full translation section you will see the general syntax <English>(<Sanskrit>) [PSDS: … | HW: … | GR: … | PC: ..].
Mantra 4: Ganga Yamuna Saraswati– Listen to my call
Ganga! Yamuna! Sarasvati! Śutudri!Pāruśni! (गङ्गेयमुनेसरस्वति शुतुद्रि परुष्ण्या) [PSDS: हे गंगे, हे यमुने, हे सरस्वति, हे शुतुद्रि, हे परुषणि |HHW: Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Śutudri, Pāruṣṇi | GR: O Ganga, O Yamuna, O Sarasvati, Śutudri and Pāruṣṇi | PC: Pāruṣni is the present Ravi, शुतुद्रि is the present Sutlej, which later came to be known as शताद्रु (śatādru) which means A hundred streams (Sutlej was called this because it apparently flowed as a hundred hastening streams)]
Enjoy this Hymn of Mine (इमं मे स्तोमं सचता) [PSDS: हमारे इस स्तोत्र का स्वीकार कारो | HHW: Accept this my praise | GR: Favour ye this my laud]
Askini with Marudvṛddha, Vitasta with Arjīkiya and Suṣoma (मरुद्ध्वृधेअसिक्न्यावितस्तयाऽऽर्जीकीयेसुषोमया) [PSDS: हे असिक्नि के साथ मरुद्वृधे, हे वितस्ता सुषोमा इनके साथ अर्जीकिया | HHW : Askini with Marudvṛddha, Vitasta, Arjīkiya with Suṣoma | GR: With Askini, Vitasta, O Maruddhvṛdha, O Arjīkiya with Suṣomā]
Listen (to my call) (शृणुह्या) [PSDS: सुनो | HHW: Listern | GR: Hear my call]
Ganga! Yamuna! Sarasvati! Śutudri!Pāruśni!Enjoy this Hymn of Mine. Askini with Marudvṛddha, Vitasta with Arjīkiya and SuṣomaListen (to my call)
Part I (Most Vigorous Among Streams) Part II (Varuṇa tears open a path) Part III (Like a bellowing bull)
Note: I have used the following abbreviations to denote translations by different authors. One of the translations (which I found to be extremely useful) is in Hindi. Apologies in advance to those who cannot read Hindi. HHW: refers to the translation of the ṛgveda by H.H.Wilson. GR: Translation by Griffiths. PSDS: From the Hindi Translation ऋग्वेद का सुबोध भाष्य by Pandit Sripada Damodara Satalvalekar. PC: refers to personal comments. Thus, in the full translation section you will see the general syntax <English>(<Sanskrit>) [PSDS: … | HW: … | GR: … | PC: ..].
अभि (abhi) – notion of going towards / approaching | त्वा (tvā) – thee, you | सिन्धो (sindho) – O! Sindhu | शिशुमिन्न (śiśuminna) – शिशुम् (śiśum) + इत् (it) + न (na). शिशुम् – young ones, the offspring. इत् – going, going towards, न – like, likewise, similar to (note from the previous mantra – वृषभो न रोरुवत्). The phrase शिशुमिन्न thus conveys the sense of ‘like going towards the younger ones’ | मातरो (mātaro) – मातः means mother, combine it with शिशुमिन्न and we get ‘like mothers go towards their offspring’ | वाश्रा (vāśrā) – moaning, roaring, lowing, howling, lowing cow | अर्षन्ति (arṣanti) – moving quickly | पयसेव (payaseva) – पयस (payasa) full of milk / sap (reference to cows that are full of milk) + इव (iva) – like | धेनवः (dhenavaḥ) – cows | राजेव (rājeva) – राजा (rājā) – king + इव (iva) like | युद्धवा (yuddhvā) – to battle | नयसि (nayasi) – You are leading (an army), you are bringing down, you are descending | त्वमित्सिचौ (tvamitsicau) – त्वम् (tvam) you + इत् (it) – going, going towards (similar usage in (शिशुमिन्न – शिशुम् इत् न)) + सिचौ (sicau) – the two wings of an army सिच् (sic) – wings of an army | यदासामग्रं (yadāsāmagraṁ) – यत् (yat) – when + आसाम् (āsām) – all those, of them, of these + अग्रं (agraṁ) – in front, before, ahead, at the front यदासामग्रं is used in the sense of ‘when at the forefront of all these (other streams)’ | प्रवतामिनक्षसि(pravatāminakṣasi) – प्रऽवताम् (pra’vatām) – प्र means going, moving, jumping, blazing forth (root: प्रु) अवताम् means desending as in (अवतारं) (अवतन् also means to descend or stretch) + इनक्षसि (inakṣasi) – reach, attain, strive to attain.
As mothers go towards their children (मातरः शिशु इत्) [PSDS: जैसे माताएं अपने पुत्र के पास प्रेम से जाती है | HHW: Like mothers (crying) for their sons | GR: Like mothers to their calves]
Like cows full with milk(पयसा इव धेनवः) [PSDS: नवप्रसूत दुग्धवती गायौं अपने बछडेके पास जाते हैं | HHW: Like milch cows with their milk | GR: Like milch kine with their milk]
(the other rivers) rush towards you roaring (वाश्राः अभि त्वा अर्षन्ति) [PSDS: वैसे ही शब्द करती हुई अन्य नदियां तेरी ओर ही आती है | HHW: (the other rivers) hasten towards you | GR: unto thee these roaring rivers run]
You lead, like a king his two wings (of his army) going to battle (युद्धवा इत् राजा इव सुचौ नयसि) [PSDS: युद्धाशील राजाके समान तू ही सेचन करनेवाली नदीयौं को लेकर जाती है | HHW: Thou leadest thy two wings like a king going to battle | GW: Thou leadest as a warrior king thine army’s wings]
You reach forth when descending at the forefront of all (the other streams) (त्वम् यत् आसाम् आग्रं प्रऽवताम् इनक्षसि) [PSDS: जब इन आगे बढने वाली के आगे तुम जाती हो | HHW: when thou marchest at the van of the streams descending | GR: what time thou comest in the van of these swift streams)
O! Sindhu. As mothers go towards their children, Like cows full with milk, (the other rivers) rush towards you roaring. You lead, like a king his two wings (of his army) going to battle, You reach forth when descending at the forefront of all (the other streams)
I have been learning to chant Poykai Āḻvār’s முதல் திருவந்தாதி (mutal tiruvantāti) and came across a beautiful set of verses that I thought worth reproducing with a translation. In this specific set of verses, the poet enumerates the different scars found on Vishnu’s body and connects them to the different acts of valor (and mischief) performed by him.
Poykai Āḻvār (பொய்கை ஆழ்வார்) is estimated to have been active some point between the 2nd and 7th Centuries A.D (there are varied opinions among historians based on literary references to a poykaiyar). Traditional accounts put his birth at a much earlier date. But, this post is not so much about the exact date on which Poykai Āḻvār was born, or the political and religious mileu in which he wrote his poetry. These things doubtless have historical significance, but I prefer to focus on his poetry, which transcends these considerations. He is broadly accepted as being one among the three முத்லாழ்வார்கள் (mutalāḻvārkaḷ – first among the āḻvārs chronologically). His name Poykai is said to derive from the traditional belief that he was found on the banks of a lake (பொய்கை – poykai) as an infant.
His work, the – முதல் திருவந்தாதி (mutal tiruvantāti) consists of 100 verses of Vaiśṇavā bhakti poetry in praise of Viṣṇu. It is also a window into the poet’s own emotions (frustration, regret, yearning) as he pours out praise for his Lord. In the following paragraphs, I present verses 22, 23 and 24 from the mutal tiruvantāti (with translation) where the poet alternates between descrbing Viṣṇu as helplessly innocent and terribly powerful by describing the scars on his (Viṣṇu’s) body. Unable to reconcile these differences in character, he finally asks Viṣṇu himself for an answer.
In reproducing these verses, I have split the words to make them more readable. Other versions may have the metrically correct form of the verses, but there is no difference in meaning. A transliteration using diacritical markings is also given.
Pācuram 22: Scars from the Knotted Rope
அறியும் உலகெல்லாம் யானேயும் அல்லேன் பொறி கொள் சிறை உவணம் ஊர்ந்தாய் – வெறி கமழும் காம்பேய் மென் தோளி கடை வெண்ணெய் உண்டாயை தாம்பே கொண்டு ஆர்த்த தழும்பு.
அறியும் (aṟiyum) – அறி (aṟi) means ‘to know’ | உலகெல்லாம் (ulakellām) – the whole world, the entire world | யனேயும் (yānēyum) – just me, நான் ஒருவனே (nān oruvanē) | அல்லேன் (allēn) – not (just me), இல்லை (illai) | பொறி கொள் சிறை (poṟi koḷ ciṟai) – பொறி means auspicious mark (many translations have this word to mean colorful). கொள் – having or bearing. சிறை – wings. பொறி கொள் சிறை – ‘wings bearing auspicious marks’ | உவனம் (uvaṇam) – The vāhana of Viṣṇu, Garuḍa (Kite) | ஊர்ந்தாய் (ūrntāy) – ride / straddle, your ride / you straddle | வெறி (veṟi) – fragrance | கமழும் (kamaḻum) – emitting fragrance (one can think of வெறி கமழும் as being the equivalent of வாசனை கமக்கும்) | காம்பேய் (kāmpey) – bamboo like, மூங்கில் போன்ற (mūṅkil pōnṟa) | மென் (men) – slim | தோளி (tōḷi) – (she with such slim) shoulders, a woman who has (such slim) shoulders | கடை (kaṭai) – churned | வெண்ணெய் (veṇṇey) – Butter | உண்டாயை (unṭāyai) – You who ate | தாம்பே (tāmpē) – rope, தாம்பு (tāmpu) | கொண்டு (koṇṭu) – using | ஆர்த்த (ārtta) – tying, (becasue of tying) | தழும்பபு (taḻumpu) – scar.
Full Translation
You ride upon Garuda, whose wings bear auspicious marks (பொறி கொள் சிறை உவணம் ஊர்ந்தாய்) (yet) Because you ate (their) churned butter (கடை வெண்ணெய் உண்டாயை) that fragrant (āyar) woman of slim-bamboo like shoulders (வெறி கமழும் காம்பேய் மென் தோளி) tied you up using a rope, causing a scar (தாம்பே கொண்டு ஆர்த்த தழும்பு) (about which) the whole world knows, not just me. (அறியும் உலகெல்லாம் யானேயும் அல்லேன்)
Commentary
Here the poet begins laying out his doubts, Krishna was tied using a rope for the silliest of crimes – stealing butter. And the woman who tied him up had such slim Bamboo like shoulders. What physical strength can one expect from such a woman? Yet, the whole world knows that it is this act of tying that caused a scar on the body of Krishna (his stomach). This is a fact widely known, not something that the poet is making up (this seems to be import of அறியும் உலகெல்லாம் யானேயும் அல்லேன்). This is bewlidering to Poykai as this is the same lord that rides the mighty Garuḍa (the act of riding the mighty bird is contrasted with the helplessnes inherent in being punished for stealing butter). How can these two facts – riding the Garuḍa and yet allowing oneself punished for such a petty crime – be reconciled?
காம்பேய் மென் தோளி can also be read in conjunction with கடை வெண்ணெய். Churning butter can be hard work, and this slender-shouldered woman of slight frame expended a great deal of effort and churned all this butter only to see Krishna steal it. Hence her desire to punish the wrong doer was justified. This, in my opinion is a weaker interpretation and not consistent with the verses that follow. The essence of this pācuram seems to be the contrast between great power and an innocent weakness. The fact that a weak, slim shouldered (whose strength was not comparable to that of the great Viṣṇu) woman could bruise Krishna adds colour to this contrast. To connect காம்பேய் மென் தோளி with கடை வெண்ணெய் and imply exhaustion leading to righteous indignation on the part of Yashoda seems a bit too contrived.
The rope (தாம்பு) is the same as maturakavi aḻvār’s கண்ணிநுன் சிறுத்தாம்பு (kaṇṇinun ciṟuttāmpu) – ‘a rough (கண்ணி), thin (நுண்), short (சிறு) rope (தாம்பு)’. The rope was rough and thin so it scarred Krishna’s skin. The rope was not long enough, so it had to be lengthened by pulling hard (so that a knot could be tied), this would have caused the rope to bite into the skin.
தழும்பிருந்த (taḻumpirunta) – தழும்பு இருந்த (taḻumpu irunta) – there was a mark / there was a scar | சார்ங்கம் (cārṅkam) – Viṣṇu’s bow शार्ङ्ग (śārṅga) | நாண் (nāṇ) – bowstring, கயிறு (kayiṟu), வில்லின்நாண் (villin-nāṇ) | தோய்ந்த (tōynta) – to come in contact with, touch | அம் கை (am kai) – Those (divine) hands | தாள் (tāḷ) – leg, feet | சகடம் (cakaṭam) – cart, a wheeled cart | சாடி (cāṭi) – to kick, உதைப்பது (utaippatu) | பூங்கோதையாள் (pūṅkōtaiyāḷ) – The Goddess śrī lakṣmī | வெருவ (veruva) – scared, அச்சம் (accam), fear | பொன்பெயரோன் (ponpeyarōn) – refers to हिरण्यकशिपु (hiraṇyakaśipu) – ‘one clothed in gold’. பொன் (pon) also means ‘gold’ | மார்பு (mārpu) – chest, breast | இடந்த (iṭanta) – tore open, to tear apart, to rend | வீங்கோத (vīṅkōta) – வீங்கு (vīṅku) + ஓதம் (ōtam) – swelling sea, swelling ocean | வண்ணர் (vaṇṇar) – one who is of such a color, (that) coloured one | விரல் (viral) – finger.
Full Translation and Commentary
(On) that hand which touched the bowstring of the śārṅga (சார்ங்கம் நாண் தோய்ந்த அம் கை), there was a scar (தழும்பிருந்த) (On) that foot which kicked the cart (சகடம் சாடி தாள்), there was a scar (தழும்பிருந்த) (on) the fingers of the one who is of the colour of the swollen ocean (வீங்கோத வண்ணர் விரல்), (which) tore open the breast of Hirayṇakaśipu(பொன்பெயரோன் மார்பு இடந்த), (thus) scaring Goddess Lakṣmi (பூங்கோதையாள் வெருவப்), there was a scar (தழும்பிருந்த)
Commentary
Krishna, as the previous pācuram indicated, was bruised when Yaśoda tied him up as punishment for stealing butter. But the very same Viṣṇu of whom Kṛṣṇa was a manifestation, has a body full of scars, having performed great feats of bravery. This adds to the bewliderment of Poykai. In the form of a lion, Viṣṇu tore open the breast of Hirayṇakaśipu. This had caused a scar on his fingers. The manifestation as Narasimha was so terrible and the act of multilating Hirayṇakaśipu so frightening, that even the Goddess Lakṣmī was frightened. If a Goddess can shiver with fear seeing Viṣṇu’s anger, where does humble Yaśoda stand? How could she have punished and bruised Kṛṣṇa so? Are the two scars equal? The difference between the warrior who wields the śārṅga and the helpless child is reinforced here.
‘that foot which kicked the cart’ (சகடம் சாடி தாள்) refers to an incident where Kṛṣṇa killed the demon Sakatāsura (who had taken the form of a cart’s wheel) by playfully landing a kick.
Pācuram 24: Cries of longing
விரலோடு வாய் தோய்ந்த வெண்ணெய் கண்டு, ஆய்ச்சி உரலோடு உற பிணித்த நான்று – குரல் ஓவாது, ஏங்கி நினைந்து அயலார் காண இருந்திலையே? ஓங்கோத வண்ணா. உரை
விரலோடு (viralōṭu) – along with the fingers | வாய் (vāy) – mouth | தோய்ந்த (tōynta) – In the last pācuram, ‘தோய்ந்த’ in ‘சார்ங்கம் நாண் தோய்ந்த அம் கை’ was translated as ‘Hands touching the bowstring of śārṅga’. Here தோய்ந்த assumes a different meaning – ‘smeared with’, ‘படிந்திருந்த’ (paṭintirunta), ‘became wet or soaked’ | வெண்ணெய் (veṇṇey) – Butter | கண்டு (kaṇṭu) – on seeing | ஆய்ச்சி (āycci) – ‘women of the herdsman caste’. ஆடு மாடு மேய்க்கும் இடையர்குலப் பெண்கள். (A reference to Yaśodā). | உரலோடு (uralōṭu) – to the mortar | உற (uṟa) – ‘to seize one by the throat; press hard’ in this case ‘tightly secured’ seems a better fit. | பிணித்த (piṇitta) – tied | நான்று (nānṟu) – then, on that day | குரல் (kural) – voice, cries | ஓவது (ōvātu) – ஓயாது (ōyātu) incessantly | ஏங்கி (ēṅki) – with longing | நினைந்து (ninaintu) – thinking of | அயலார் (ayalār) – outsiders, others | காண (kāṇa) – seeing | இருந்திலையே (iruntilaiyē) – ‘Did you not?’, ‘Were you not?’ | ஓங்கோத (ōṅkōta) – ஓங்கு (ōṅku) + ஓதம் (ōtam) – vast,rising, growing, high + seas | வண்ணா (vaṇṇā) – coloured one | உரை (urai) – speak, tell me |
Full Translation
O! One who is the colour of the vast ocean (ஓங்கோத வண்ணா) (When Yaśodā on) Seeing your hands and mouth smeared with butter (விரலோடு வாய் தோய்ந்த வெண்ணெய் கண்டு), Tied you tightly to the mortar that day (உரலோடு உற பிணித்த நான்று), Did you not cry incessantly? (குரல் ஓவாது இருந்திலையே), (while) longing, (still) thinking (about the butter) (ஏங்கி நினைந்து), As others watched (அயலார் காண). Tell me! (உரை)
Commentary
The striking use of the word தோய்ந்த (tōynta) by the poet cannot be captured fully in an English translation. Poykai swerves back to the image of a helpless Kṛṣṇa tied to the mortar stone for the crime of stealing butter. விரலோடு வாய் தோய்ந்த வெண்ணெய் (viralōṭu vāy tōyntaveṇṇey) presents the well known image of Kṛṣṇa hands deep in a pot of butter. Compare this with the manner in which the same word was deployed earlier சார்ங்கம் நாண் தோய்ந்த அம் கை (cārṅkam nāṇ tōynta am kai) representing a fearless warrior, hands scarred by the constant use of the bow. And even upon so grave a provocation by Yaśodā, Kṛṣṇa can do nothing but wail, as others watch, longing for what has been snatched away from him. Poykai, struggles to reconcile these images. Finally, he asks the Lord himself – Tell me! How is this possible?
Note: I have used the following abbreviations to denote translations by different authors. One of the translations (which I found to be extremely useful) is in Hindi. Apologies in advance to those who cannot read Hindi. HHW: refers to the translation of the ṛgveda by H.H.Wilson. GR: Translation by Griffiths. PSDS: From the Hindi Translation ऋग्वेद का सुबोध भाष्य by Pandit Sripada Damodara Satalvalekar. PC: refers to personal comments. Thus, in the full translation section you will see the general syntax <English>(<Sanskrit>) [PSDS: … | HW: … | GR: … | PC: ..].
divi svāno yatate bhūmyoparyanantaṁ śuṣmamudiyarti bhānunā abhrādiva pra stanayanti vṛṣṭayaḥ sinduryadeti vṛṣabho na rorūvat
Word by Word Translation
दिवि (divi) – दिव् (div) means heaven, air, sky | स्वानो (svāno) – स्वनः means sound, noise, thunder, roaring water | यतते (yatate) – यत् (yat) – going, moving (यातु (yātu) means traveller – recall अरदत् वरुणो यातवे पथः aradat vaṛuṇo yātave pathaḥ from the previous mantra) | भूम्योपर्यनन्तं (bhūmyoparyanantaṁ) – भूम्या + उपरि + अनन्तं (bhūmyā + upari + anantaṁ) – भूम्यः -earth. उपरि – ऊपर, above. अनन्तं – endless (अत्यन्त) ‘endlessly above the earth’ if taken together | शुष्ममुदियर्ति (śuṣmamudiyarti) – शुष्मं (śuṣmaṁ) means hissing / roaring could also means vigour / power. उदयर्ति (udayarti) means rise (उदि). Note: उदर्द् – उर्दति means to swell, rise as a wave (this is the sense that seems to be used in the HHW translation. उदिङ्ग – means to impart a vibration, उदिति means ascending/ rising (as in the rising sun) उदित also means increased/augmented | भानुना (bhānunā) – भानु (bhānu) means ray of light, beam of light | प्र (pra) – come forth | स्तनयन्ति (stanayanti) – thundering / roaring | वृष्टयः (vṛṣṭayaḥ) : वृष्टः (vṛṣṭaḥ) means rained, pour down | अभिद्राव (abhidrāva) – अभ्रात् + इव (abhāt + iva). अभ्रात् means cloud. इव means ‘like’ – ‘like a cloud’ | सिन्धुर्यदेति (sindhuryadeti) : सिन्धुः + यत् + एति – So, Sindu Goes | वृषभ (vṛṣabha) – bull | न (na) – like | रोरुवत् (roruvat) – रोरवण (roravaṇa) means loid roaring / bellowing (प्रचंड शब्द करना) |
Full Translation
Your sounds go to heaven above the earth (भूम्या उपरि स्वनः दिवि यतते) [PSDS: भूमि ऊपर गर्जन करने वाला तेरा शब्द आकाश को व्यापता है | HHW: The sound goeth forth in heaven above the earth | GR: His roar is lifted up to heaven above the earth]
Your endless vigour ascends as a ray of light (अनन्तं शुष्मं उदियर्ति भानुना) [PSDS: ये अत्यन्त वेग से और दीप्त लहरी के साथ जाती है | HHW: With shining wave animates his endless vigour | GR: He puts forth endless vigour with. flash of light]
As rains come forth from clouds thundering (अभ्रात् इव वृष्टयः प्र स्तनयन्ति) [PSDS: अनन्तर जैसे मेघसे वृष्टियां खूब गर्जन के साथ बरसति है | HHW: as rains issue thundering from the cloud | GR: Like floods of rain that fall in thunder from the cloud]
Likewise Sindhu proceeds like a bellowing bull (यत् सिन्धु वृषभः न रोरुवत् एति) [PSDS: सिन्धुनदी वेगसे वृषभ के समान प्रचंड शब्द करती हुई आती है | HHW: So Sindhu when she advances roaring like a bull | GR: Sindhu rushes forth bellowing like a bull]
Your sounds go to heaven above the earth,Your endless vigour ascends as a ray of light. As rains come forth from clouds thundering, likewise Sindhu proceeds like a bellowing bull!
Continuing from Part I (Most Vigorous Among Streams).
Note: I have used the following abbreviations to denote translations by different authors. One of the translations (which I found to be extremely useful) is in Hindi. Apologies in advance to those who cannot read Hindi. HHW: refers to the translation of the ṛgveda by H.H.Wilson. GR: Translation by Griffiths. PSDS: From the Hindi Translation ऋग्वेद का सुबोध भाष्य by Pandit Sripada Damodara Satalvalekar. PC: refers to personal comments. Thus, in the full translation section you will see the general syntax <English>(<Sanskrit>) [PSDS: … | HW: … | GR: … | PC: ..].
प्र (pra) : can denote praise, ‘forward’, ‘in front’, ‘forth’, progressive motion, appearance, manifestation | अरदद्ववरुणो (aradadvaruṇo) : अरदत् + वरुणो. अरदत् derives from रद् – scratching, splitting, tearing, खोदना. वारुणो – the god Varuṇa. Hence, अरदद्ववरुणो means ‘Varuṇa tore’. | यातवे (yātave) – यातु means ‘traveller’. यातवे – for travelling, to travel, for coursing (as in a river’s course) | पथः (pathaḥ) : road, path, way | सिन्धो (sindho) : O! Sindhu | यद्वाजाँ (yadvājāṁ) : यत् + वाजां . यत् – that. वाजां – food, prize, sacrificial food, grain | त्वं (tvaṁ) : You | अभ्यद्रवस् (abhyadravas) : forcefully went, ran towards | भूम्या (bhūmyā) : earth, भूमि | अधि (adhi) : prefix – over and above, over | प्रवता (pravatā) : flows, flow. प्रवत् also means rapidly, rapidly downwards | सानुना (sānunā) : सानु stands for cliff, ridge, summit | यासि (yāsi) : ?? could be from root या – going | यत् (yat) : That | एषां (eṣāṁ) : because of which | अग्रं (agraṁ) : foremost, chief, in front of | जगतां (jagatāṁ) : world | इरज्य (irajya) : leads, to lead, you lead.
Full translation
O Sindhu! (सिन्धु) [PSDS: सिनधु! | HHW: Waters! | GR: O Sindhu]
When you forcefully went towards the food (यत् वाजान् त्वं अभ्यद्रव) [PSDS: जिस समय तू शस्यशामी प्रदेश की ओर चली | HHW: since thou hastenedst towards food | GR: when thou rannest on to win the race | PC : PSDS translates वाजान् as शस्यशामी प्रदेश which means ‘grain producing region’. Griffith translates वाजान् as race (deriving from the meaning ‘prize’)]
Varuṇa tore open a path for you to travel forth(ते प्र यातवे अरदत् वरुण: पथः) [PSDS: उस समय वरुणने तेरे गमनके लिये विस्तृत मार्ग खोदकर बना दिये | HHW: For thy course Varuṇa tore open a path | GR: Varuna cut the channels for thy forward course]
You flow rapidly downwards over mountains to the earth (भूम्या अधि सानुना प्रवता या) [PSDS: तू भूमि के ऊपर उत्तम मार्ग से जाती है | HHW: thou goest by a lofty road upon the earth | GR: Thou speedest o’er precipitous ridges of the earth | PC: lofty path and precipitous ridges – I have translated these as ‘mountains’]
By which you lead the foremost of this earth (यत् एषां जगतां अग्रं इरज्यसि) [PSDS: जिस कारण से तू इन जंगम प्राणुयों के मुख्य जीवन का आधार होती है | HHW: By which (road) thou reignest in sight of all the world | GR: when thou art lord and leader of these moving floods | PC: HHW I think, translates अग्र as ‘uppermost part’ or ‘top’ and connects it with the ‘lofty path’ of the previous line, Sindhu, by going over this lofty path reigns over the world.]
O Sindhu! When you forcefully went towards the food, Varuṇa tore open a path for you to travel forth. You flow rapidly downwards over mountains to the earth, by which you lead the foremost of this earth.
I am currently reading ‘ The Lost River – On the trail of the Saraswati’ by Micheal Danino. The book attempts to trace the history of the ancient Saraswati river through collective memories that have survived, references in religious literature, geographical and arhaelogical surveys.
Book Cover – Source Amazon Product Page.
In one chapter, the author references of the Nadīstuti Sūkta (नदीस्तुतिसूक्त) from the ṛgveda, which lists the rivers of the northern plains in order from west to east revealing the ‘initmate knowledge’ that the poet had of the gepgraphy of rhe region. What struck me (other than the hymn itself) was the thinly veiled contempt with which Max Muller held the vedic poets and his grudging acknowledgement of their geographical knowledge. I am quoting the passage in full below:
“Even Max Muller, who made a virtual dogma of the ‘savage phase of thought which we find in the Veda’, was compelled to grant that in this hymn, ‘the rivers invoked … are the real rivers of the Punjāb, and the poem shows a much wider geographical horizon than we should expect from a mere village bard.’ We may wonder what the said village bard would have thought of this left-handed compliment…” (The Lost River – Micheal Danino – Pg. 39).
The phrase ‘mere village bard’ stung me. There was nothing that I knew of the Vedas to comment upon their quality and poetic excellence. My Sanskrit is fairly rudimentary (I am learning more every day though). However, I can use a dictionary fairly well and there are multiple translations of the ṛgveda freely available. I thus decided to read the Nadīstuti Sūkta myself and judge the quality of these village bards rather than taking Max Muller’s words at face value.
What I have attempted in these series of posts is fairly simple. I take each mantra of the sūkta and attempt to provide a word by word translation (This is easier said than done. The language of the ṛgveda is quite old and bewilderingly many interpretations of the same word are possible. For a Sanskrit Amateur the ṛgveda is a few times tougher to decipher than say, the Bhagavad Gīta for which multiple word-by-word translations are readily available). The word by word translation is not likely to add much value, think of it as an easy reference (however, there are many instances where I have struggled to get the correct essence of a word. This will become apparent soon) . I then present my translation of the verse along with translations by three different authors. I am not even remotely qualified to attempt to improve the translations produced by these three authors, but the idea of reading the vedās vicariously and experiencing them through someone else’s translation alone did not seem very appealing to me. This translation is accomapanied by some notes and personal commentary.
This is pretty much what this series of posts will contain. I will leave the readers to form their own judgement on the quality of verses. To me the descriptions of the Sindhu in the Sūkta was awe-inspiring and this exercise of carefully reading the mantras was extremely rewarding.
Note: I have used the following abbreviations to denote translations by different authors. One of the translations (which I found to be extremely useful) is in Hindi. Apologies in advance to those who cannot read Hindi. HHW: refers to the translation of the ṛgveda by H.H.Wilson. GR: Translation by Griffiths. PSDS: From the Hindi Translation ऋग्वेद का सुबोध भाष्य by Pandit Sripada Damodara Satalvalekar. PC: refers to personal comments. Thus, in the full translation section you will see the general syntax <English>(<Sanskrit>) [PSDS: … | HW: … | GR: … | PC: ..].
pra su va āpo mahimānamuttamaṁ kāruvorcāti sadane vivasvataḥ pra saptasapta tredhā hi cakramuḥ pra sṛtvarīṇāmati sindhurojasā
Word by word Translation:
प्र (pra) : can denote praise, ‘forward’, ‘in front’, ‘forth’, progressive motion, appearance, manifestation | सु (su) : To go, Excellent, move. प्र सु could mean – ‘go forth!’ ? Contextually this seems to be the case. | व (va) : Ocean, water, air, wind, a name of Varuṇa | महिमानमुत्तमं (mahimānamuttamaṁ): – महिमानम् + उत्तमम्. महिमा means greatness. महिमन् means greatness, might, power. उत्तमं stands for higest, greatest, best. महिमानमुत्तमं could thus mean ‘greatest might’ ‘great-might’, ‘highest-might’ | कारुर्वोचाति (kārurvocāti) : कारुः + वोचाति. कारुः means poet, one who sings praises. वोचाति – उचाति means praise, the poet’s praise , alternatively, वच् means to speak or tell. So, कारुर्वोचाति could mean, ‘poets praise’, ‘poets speak of’ | सदने (sadane) ; In the dwelling, house, home, abode | विवस्वतः (vivasvataḥ) : sun god / surya, brilliant one | सप्तसप्त (saptasapta) : seven and seven | त्रेधा (tredhā) : in threes, in three worlds, three parts | हि (hi) : surely, to go | चक्रमुः (cakramuḥ) : ?? प्रचक्र means an army in motion, क्रम means to proceed, in this case it may be equivalent to the hindi बहना (to flow), चक्रमु being a form of क्रम | सृत्वरीणामति (sṛtvarīṇāmati) : सृत्वरीणां + अति. सृत्वर means river / stream, सृत्वरीणां means ‘of streams’. अति means surpassing, beyond. सृत्वरीणामति thus means, ‘surpassing all streams’ ‘greater than all streams’ ‘beyond all streams’ | सिन्धु॒रोज॑सा (sindhurojasā) : सिन्धुः + ओजसा – सिन्धु – Indus river. ओजसा – vigour / strength. सिन्धु॒रोज॑सा thus means ‘vigour of the Indus’, ‘Strength of the Indus’.
Full translation
O! Waters (हे (आपः)) [PSDS: जल! | HHW: Waters! | GR: O ye Waters! | ].
Your greatest grandeur (व: उत्तमं महिमानं) [PSDS: तुम्हारे उत्कृष्टतम महत्वपूर्ण | HHW: Your grandeur that is beyond compare | GR: (to) you excellent praise| PC: Note that उत्कृष्टतम महत्वपूर्ण स्तोत्र means vital wonderfulness.]
is spoken of by poets(कारुः वोचाति) [PSDS: स्तोत्र स्तुतिकर्ता मैं कहा करता हूँ | HHW: The worshipper addresses (to you) | GR: The singer shall tell | PC: Singer, worshipper, poet, praiser – all these mean pretty much the same thing in this context.]
in the best manner in the house of vivasvat (सु प्र सदने विवस्वतः) [PSDS: यजमान के गृह में उत्तम रिति से | HHW: Excellent praise in the dwelling of the institutor of the rite | GR: in Vivasvan’s place | PC: Griffith seems to have no equivalent phrase for ‘excellent praise’ or उत्तम रिति से. yajamāna means sponsor of the rite. Wilson and Pandit Sripada seem to both translate विवस्वतः as patron of the sacrifice.]
You flow forth as seven and seven in the three places (प्र सप्तसप्त त्रेधा चक्रमुः) [PSDS : सात सात करके तीन प्रकार से बहती है | HHW: they flowed by sevens through the three (worlds) | GR: The rivers have come forward triply, seven and seven]
Of Streams, the Sindhu surpasses all in Vigour (सृत्वरीणां सिन्धु ओजसा अति) [PSDS: इन बहने वाली नदियों में सिन्धु नाम की नदी स्वबलसे सर्वों में श्रेष्ठ है | HHW: but thr Sindhu surpasses (all) the (other) streams in strength | GR: Sindhu in might surpasses all the streams that flow]
O! Waters, Your Greatest Grandeur is spoken by poets in the best manner in the house of Vivasvat! You flow forth as seven and seven in the three places. Of streams, the Sindhu surpasses all in vigour!
(This post is a translation of a section of U.V.Swaminathaiyer’s auto-biography என் சரித்திரம் (en carittiram). In this post, I have chosen a particularly interesting episode from U.Ve.Sa’schildhood days in the village of Kunnam. For those who can read Tamil, the translation is not necessary. For those who can’t it is a unique insight into the formative stages of a Tamil Scholar Par Excellence, his appetite for learning and devotion towards learned men.)
“கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்கார் வருகை –
நான் இவ்வாறு குன்னத்தில் இருக்கும்போது ஸ்ரீ வைஷ்ணவர் ஒருவரது வீட்டில் ஒரு கல்யாணம் நடந்தது. அதற்காக அவ்வூரின் வடக்கேயுள்ள கார்குடி என்னும் கிராமத்திலிருந்து அந்த வீட்டினருக்குப் பந்துக்களாகிய சிலர் வந்தனர். அவர்களில் கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்காரென்பவர் ஒருவர். அவர் சிதம்பரம் பிள்ளைக்குப் பழக்கமானவர். சிதம்பரம் பிள்ளை என்னிடம் கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்காரைப் பற்றி “அவர் சிறந்த தமிழ் வித்துவான். இந்தப் பக்கங்களில் அவரைப் போன்றவர் ஒருவரும் இல்லை. கம்பராமாயணத்திலும் மற்ற நூல்களிலும் நல்ல பழக்கமுடையவர். நன்றாகப் பிரசங்கம் செய்வார். முருக்கங்குடியிலிருந்த ஒரு வீரசைவப் புலவரிடம் பாடங் கேட்டவர்” என்று கூறினார். அப்போது எனக்கு அவரைப் பார்க்க வேண்டுமென்றும் அவரிடமிருந்து அரிய விஷயங்களைத் தெரிந்துகொள்ள வேண்டுமென்றும் அவா உண்டாயிற்று. அதற்குரிய முயற்சி செய்யத் தொடங்கினேன்.
விவாகம் நடந்த மறுநாட் காலையில் கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்காரே நாங்கள் இருந்த வீட்டின் சொந்தக்காரராகிய ராமையங்காரைப் பார்க்க வந்தார். அவ்விருவரும் உறவினர். அவர் வந்தபோது அவருடன் வேறு பலரும் வந்தனர். எல்லோரும் ஓரிடத்தில் இருந்து பேசிக்கொண்டிருந்தார்கள். நானும் ஒரு பக்கமாக இருந்து அவர்களுடைய சம்பாஷணையைக் கவனித்து வரலானேன். கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்கார் பேசுவது மிகவும் ரஸமாக இருந்தது. அவர் இடையிடையே தமிழ்ப் பாடல்களைச் சொல்லிப் பொருளும் கூறினார். அவற்றைக் கேட்டு நான் மிக்க உத்ஸாகத்தை அடைந்தேன்.
அப்போது என் மனத்தில் ஓர் ஆவல் உண்டாயிற்று; “இவர் நம்மைப் பார்த்துப் பேச மாட்டாரா? ஏதேனும் நம்மைக் கேட்க மாட்டாரா?” என்று எண்ணினேன். என் கருத்தை ஊகித்தறிந்த ஒருவர் கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்காரை நோக்கி, “ஸ்வாமீ, இந்தப் பையன் தமிழ் படித்து வருகிறான். உங்களை பார்க்க வேண்டும், பார்க்க வேண்டுமென்று துடித்துக் கொண்டிருந்தான். இப்போது உங்கள் பேச்சையே கேட்டுக்கொண்டிருக்கிறான்” என்றார்.
கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்கார் பரீக்ஷித்தது கேட்ட அவர், “அப்படியா? சந்தோஷம்” என்று சொல்லிவிட்டு என்னைப் பார்த்து, “நீ யாரிடம் படித்து வருகிறாய்?” என்று கேட்டார்.
“இவ்வூர்க் கணக்குப்பிள்ளையவர்களிடம் படிக்கிறேன்.”
“என்ன படிக்கிறாய்?”
“திருவிளையாடற் புராணம்.”
“முன்பு வேறு யாரிடமேனும் படித்ததுண்டோ?”
“உண்டு. அரியிலூர்ச் சடகோபையங்காரவர்களிடமும் வேறு சிலரிடமும் படித்தேன்” என்று கூறி நான் படித்த நூல்கள் இன்னவை யென்றும் தெரிவித்தேன்.
கேட்டதும் அவர், “அப்படியா? சடகோபையங்காரவர்கள் நல்ல படிப்பாளி. அவர்களிடம் படித்தாய் என்பதைக் கேட்க எனக்கு மிகவும் திருப்தியாக இருக்கிறது. எங்கே, ஒரு பாடல் சொல் கேட்போம்” என்றார். உடனே நான் பைரவி ராகத்தில் திருவேங்கடத்தந்தாதியிலிருந்து ஒரு பாடல் சொன்னேன். பொருள் கூறும்படி அவர் கேட்டார். நான் சுருக்கமாகக் கூறினேன். “நன்றாக இருக்கிறது” என்று சொல்லி அவர் சந்தோஷமடைந்தார். அவர் சொன்னது எனக்குக் கனகாபிஷேகம் செய்ததுபோல் இருந்தது. அவ்வளவு பெரிய வித்துவான் என்னை ஒரு பொருட்படுத்தி என் பாட்டைக் கேட்டுப் பாராட்டுவதென்றால் நான் எவ்வளவு பாக்கியம் செய்திருக்க வேண்டும்!
“வேறு ஏதேனும் தெரிந்தால் சொல்லு” என்று கேட்டார் அவர்.
எனக்கு ஊக்கம் அதிகரித்தது. சதகங்களிலிருந்து சில பாடல்கள் சொன்னேன்.
“திருவேங்கட மாலை படித்திருக்கிறாயா?” என்று அவர் கேட்டார்.
“இல்லை” என்றேன்.
“நான் இப்போது ஒரு பாடல் சொல்லுகிறேன். எழுதிக்கொள்” என்றார்.
“இன்று நாம் நரி முகத்திலேதான் விழித்திருக்கிறோம்” என்று எண்ணி நான் மிக்க குதூகலமடைந்தேன்.
என்ற பாடலை அவர் மெல்லச் சொல்லி என்னை எழுதிக்கொள்ளச் செய்தார். பிறகு அதன் பொருளையும் சொன்னார். அப்பால், “எங்கே, அதை ஒரு முறை படித்து அர்த்தம் சொல், பார்க்கலாம்” என்று உரைத்தார். “இவருடைய மனத்தில் நம்மைப்பற்றி நல்ல அபிப்பிராயத்தை உண்டாக்க வேண்டும்” என்று மனம் அவாவியது. மிகவும் நிதானமாகப் படித்துப் பயபக்தியுடன் நான் கேட்டபடியே பொருள் சொன்னேன்.
கஸ்தூரி ஐயங்காருக்கு என்பால் அன்பு அரும்பியது. “நல்ல கிராஹ்ய சக்தி இருக்கிறது. நன்றாய்ப் படித்துக் கொண்டு வா” என்றார் அவர்.”” (Taken from என் சரித்திரம் -U.V.Swaminathan Iyer)
This is translated as follows. There is a verse from the Tiruvēṅkaṭamālai recited by Kastūri Iyaṅkār, which I have translated in detail at the end, this translation just contains a transliterated version of the same verse.
“The coming of Kastūri Iyaṅkār – As the days passed in Kunnam, there happened to be a wedding at the home of a SriVaiśṇavite. To attend the wedding, a group of friends had come to Kunnam from the village of Kārkuṭi located to the north (of Kunnam). One among this group of friends was Kastūri Iyaṅkār. He was a friend of Citamparam Piḷļai (the village accountant and a benefactor of U.Ve.Sa’s family). Citamparam Piḷļai had told me this about Kastūri Iyaṅkār, “He is a very special Tamil Scholar. There is no one quite like him in these parts. He is well versed in the kambarāmāyaṇam and other works. He also lectures well (on Tamil Literature). He is a student of a learned vīrasaiva from Murukkaṅkuṭi.“. Since then, I developed a strong desire to meet him (Kastūri Iyaṅkār) and learn from him. I began work in that direction.
The day after the wedding, Kastūri Iyaṅkār himself came to meet Rāmaiyaṅkār in whose house we were staying. He was accompanied by many others. They were all gathered in one place and conversing with one another, while I stood aside and observed their gestures. Kastūri Iyaṅkār’s speech was charming. He occasionaly recited Tamil poems and explained their meaning. Listening to these poems, I became quite excited!.
At that time a yearning arose with in me, “Will he not look at me and say something? Will he not ask me something?”. Someone in the group who seems to have understood what I was thinking said to Kastūri Iyaṅkār, “Swāmi, this boy is a student of Tamil. He has been itching to see you. Right now he seems be listening to everything you say.”
Kastūri Iyaṅkār‘s test – Listening to this (the man’s words) Kastūri Iyaṅkār said, “Is it so?”, and looked at me and asked, “Who are you studying under”
(UVS): “I am studying under the Village Accountant (kaṇakkupiḷļai)”
(KI): “What are you studying”
(UVS): ‘The Tiruviḷaiyāṭar purāṇam”
(KI): “Have you studied previously under anyone else”
(UVS): “Yes, under Ariyalūr Caṭakōpaiyaṅkār and a few others”
Saying this I listed the works I had studied. On hearing this he said, “Is it so? Caṭakōpaiyaṅkār is a very learned man. I am happy that you have studied under him. Come on, let me hear a poem.” I immediately sang a song in the bairavi raakam. He asked me to explain its meaning, which I did. At this, he said, “It is very good.” and was pleased. His words were like a kanakābiśēkam (a shower of golden coins) to me. I must have been very lucky to have a great scholar listen to my singing and appreciate it.
“If you know anything else, recite it”, he asked me.
I was further enthused and recited a few songs from the Catakam’s.
“Have you read the Tiruvēṅkaṭamālai?”, he asked me.
“No” I replied.
“I shall recite a song, write it down”, he said.
“I must have woken up to the face of a fox (considered a lucky omen) today”, I thought to myself.
Kastūri Iyaṅkār recited slowly and I wrote it down:
He explained to me what it meant. He then said, “Here, recite the verse again and tell me its meaning”. I thought to myself, “I must impress him”, and I recited the poem slowly and with great devotion.
Kastūri Iyaṅkār’s affection for me grew further. He said, “You are endowed with the ability to grasp things. Study well.”” (Translation of the above section from En Carittiram by U.Ve.Sa)
What interested me the most in this exchange were the verses from the Tiruvēṅkaṭamālai recited by Kastūri Iyaṅkār. I am reproducing it in easy to read tamil along with a word by word meaning.
தேன் இயலும் கூந்தலார் செங்கரமும் மாதவத்தோர்
மேனியும், ஐயம்பொழியும் வேங்கடமே - ஞானியர்கள்
தாம் குறி எட்டக்கரத்தார் தாள் உரல் மேல் – வைத்து
வெண்ணை தாங்கு உறி எட்டு அக்கரத்தார் - சார்பு
தேன் இயலும் கூந்தலார் – தேன் stands for honey இயலுதல் in this case stands for ‘full of or filled with’ and கூந்தல் stands for hair. The gist of this phrase is ‘those whose hair is full of honey’. The honey presumably comes from the flowers that the women have worn on their hair. The idea conveyed is that the women have worn on their hair flowers fragrant and dipping with honey. | செங்கரமும் – red hands, pink hands (of the women whose hair is full of honey (from the flowers they have worn). | மா தவத்தோர் – great ascetics மா stands for great or large தவம் is meditation and hence தவத்தோர் refers to ascetics|
மேனி– bodies (of the great ascetics) | ஐயம்பொழியும் – ஐய் அம்பு ஒழியும் – where the five arrows of Kama (representing the five senses) are rendered useless (destroyed). Where the base senses and illusory sensory pleasures are rendered meaningless. | வேங்கடமே – Venkatam! |
ஞானியர்கள் – Learned men | தாம் குறி எட்டக்கரத்தார் – whose aim (focus) is on the eight sylablles (எட்டு அக்கரத்தார் – aṣṭākṣaram – Om Namo Nārāyaṇāya) | தாள் உரல் மேல் வைத்து – (one who) kept his legs (தாள்) atop the mortar (உரல்) | வெண்ணை தாங்கு உறி – pot containing butter | எட்டு அக்கரத்தார் – the hands (அக்கரம்) of he who reached (எட்டு) | சார்பு – place.
This is fully (and poorly! It is impossible to reproduce the exact emotion in English) translated as:
Veṇkaṭam! The place where the five arrows (of kāma) are rendered useless,
where great ascetics live, where women with pink palms and hair filled with honey (roam),
(The place) where learned men focus on the eight holy syllables,
(where) he whose hands reached for the butter pot while standing on the mortar (resides)
This post is based on a reading of Y.Subbarayulu’s excellent and captivating work – ‘South India Under the Cholas’. The book has multiple essays, each focussing on some aspect of the Chola era. This post is based on a reading of the third chapter titled – “The Merchant Guild Inscription at Barus in Sumatra”.
South India Under the Cholas By Y.Subbarayulu ( Link)
The திசை ஆயித்தைந்நூற்றுவர் (ticaiāyirattainnūṟṟuvar) or the ‘five hundred of a thousand directions’ was a guild of merchants also known as the அய்யாவொளெ-ஐநூற்றுவர் (ayyāvoḷe ainūṟṟuvar). which was known to exist from the 9th century onwards and whose activities spread from karnataka and Tamil Nadu to the enitre southern India and Srilanka after the 11th century. The guild saw rapid growth under the Cholas and engaged in foreign trade, the evidence of such foregin trade as gleaned from an insciption in Sumatra is the subject of this post.
“During the eleventh century, especially in the later half, its itinerant activities spread over the entire south India and Sri Lanka, engaging in long-distance trade.By the end of the eleventh century the guild, incorporating several ethnic and lingusitic groups, is found in several coastal towns, many of which had come up under the patronage of the Chola dynasty.”[Y.Subbarayulu. South India Under the Cholas. Pg 43-44]
The third chapter of Subbarayulu’s book is a masterly treatment of a specific inscription from Loboe Toewa, Barus, Sumatra, in the Tamil script. Based on the contents of the inscription, it seems to have been made by the members of the Ayyāvoḷe guild. I am providing the modern tamil version of the inscription followed by a summary of Subbarayulu’s analysis of the contents (The author has provided a transliterated version of the inscription in his book, I am merely reproducing it in the modern tamil script after removing the line numbers.)
“ஸ்வஸ்தி ஶ்ரீ சகரை.. ஆண்டு ஆயிரத்துப் பத்துச் செல்லானின்ற மாசித் திங்கல்… வாரோசன மாதங்கரி-வல்லவத்-தேசி-உய்யக்-கொண்ட-பட்டிநத்து வேளாபுரட்டு கூடி நிரந்தத தேசித் திசை விளங்கு திசை ஆயிரத்தைந்நூற்றுவரோம்…. நம்மகநார் நகர சேனாபதி நாட்டுச்செட்டியார்க்கும் பதினெண்பூமி….தேசி அப்பர்க்கு மாவெத்துகள்க்கும் நா வைத்துக்குடுத்த பரிசாவது மரக்கல…..[..] மரக்கல நாயனும் கேவிகளும் கஸ்தூரி விலை முதல கப்பட அஞ்சு துண்டாயம் பொன்னும் குடுத்துப் …பாவாடை ஏறக்கடவதாகவும் இப்படிக்கு இக்கல் எழுதி நாட்டிக்-குடுத்தொம் படினேண்பூமி தேசித் திசை விளங்கு திசை ஆயிரத்தைந்நூற்றுவரோம் அறமறவேற்க அறமேய் துணை.” [Y.Subbarayulu. South India Under the Cholas Pg. 39-40. Original text is in the book transliterated, I have converted it into modern tamil script]
I will now summarize Subbarayulu’s word by word translation of the inscription. I recommend reading the entire chapter in the book.
ஸ்வஸ்தி ஶ்ரீ – let good things happen. Subbarayulu (Pg.22 in the book) defines the general structure of inscriptions as (a) an auspicious phrase (b) the name of the ruling king (c) the purpose (d) a benediction. In this inscription, the name of the ruling king is absent (South Indian inscriptions generally refer to the name of the ruling king).
சகரை ஆண்டு ஆயரத்து பத்து – On the 1010th śaka year. The Śaka calendar is the Indian National Calendar. Year 1010 in the Śaka calendar corresponds to 1088 AD.
மாசித் திங்கள் – In the month of Māsi.
வாரோசன – vārōcana – refers to the name of the location – Barus.
மதங்கரி வல்லவ – One who is loved by Mataṅkari. வல்லவ் is equivalent to the Sanskrit वल्लभ – which means ‘beloved of’. This phrase can also be read as beloved of Mataṅkari. Since मातंगी in Sanskrit is a form of Durga and the Ayyāvoḷe guild considered themselves as sons of Parameshwari (Subbarayulu Pg.41) it seems appropriate to simplify the translation as beloved of Parameswari.
தேசி உய்யக்கொண்ட பட்டினம் – The author suggests that tēci (தேசி) is just another name for the guild. உய் means to be blessed or to be free from danger. The author translates உய்யக்கொண்ட as protected by (it may also mean blessed by or made free from danger) பட்டினம் means town. So தேசி உய்யக்கொண்ட பட்டினம் means the town where the merchants (of the guild) are protected.
வேளாபுரம் – वेल in sanskrit translates to Sea-shore (contextually this seems correct, as वेेल could also mean a garden according to the Monier Williams dictionary). Note that the inscription reads மாதங்கரி-வல்லவத்-தேசி-உய்யக்-கொண்ட-பட்டிநத்து வேளாபுர(ம்) which should then mean the port of the town of Barus (“As a vēlāpuram or harbour cannot exist without a neighbouring town, it seems to have always been considered as a part of the town” – Y.S Pg 42)
கூடி – having met
நிரந்த தெசித் திசை விளங்கு – one meaning of நிரந்து-தல் is ‘to expand’ (in this context it could just mean ‘all’ as per the author) தேசி here refers to countries. திசை means directions. விளங்கு- means renowned or illustrious (this seems a better word than ‘known’ used by the author, since we are still in the Eulogy section of the inscription.
திசை ஆயிரத்தைந்நூற்றுவரோம் – The 500 of the 1000 directions.
நம்மகநார் நகர சேனாபதி நாட்டுச்செட்டியார்க்கும் – நம் மகநார் literally translates to ‘our son’ in referring to a specific person or if, as the author suggests that மகநார் denotes the plural rather than the honorific, it may denote all the persons that follow in the inscription (who are the benficiaries). நகர சேனாபதி- captain of the town. நாட்டுச்செட்டியார் – Merchant of the நாடு. The whole phrase seems to denote a specific title.
பதினெண்பூமி….தேசி அப்பர்க்கு – பதினெண்பூமி தேசி refers to the merchants of the 18 countries. But அப்பர் seems to be confusing. The author translates it as ‘man’, making பதினெண்பூமி தேசி அப்பர் ‘the man of the merchants of the 18 countries’. However, I am not able to find any dictionary entries linking அப்பர் to ‘man’.
நா வைத்து குடுத்த பரிசாவது – The author translates this as ‘we decided to thus grant to (them)’. Could also be ‘We have ..kept.. and given these gifts..’
மரக்கல…..[..] மரக்கல நாயனும்கேவிகளும் – மரக்கல்ம் means ship, the word after the first மரக்கல…..[..] (denoted by a [..]) is missing in the inscription, it must, according to the author denotes “something to do with the marakkalam or ship” (Y.S Pg 42.). மரக்கல நாயன் is easy to translate it means ‘captain (நாயகன்) of the ship’. கேவி means crew of the ship. The phrase denotes that the ship’s captain and crew (and someone else associated with the ship, but we donot know who). An intersting side note on job tites, from Pg 54 of the same book, I came to know of some other titles in use in the Chola administration – ஓலை-நாயகம் (Chief record keepers – records were probably maintained on palm leaves), தண்ட-நாயகம் (A post in the army below – sēnāpati) and நடுவிருக்கை – judicial officer (நடுவர் means judge).
கஸ்தூரி விலை முதல கப்ப – கஸ்தூரி means musk, but the author believes that it could denote a general class of aromatic products as Barus was well known for its Camphor (சூடம்) and musk was not produced there. விலை முதல் – means ‘according to the price of’ கப்பம் translates to fee. The whole phrase means ‘fee according to the proce of musk’
அஞ்சு துண்டாயம் பொன்னும் குடுத்து – அஞ்சு துண்டாயம் (añcutuṇṭāyam) is a type of fee to be paid in gold (பொன்னு). குடுத்து means to ‘give’.
பாவாடை ஏறக்கடவதாகவும் – Literally means ‘shall stand on the cloth (பாவாடை), the author has an interesting explanation of what this could mean. “However, in this case , the concerned verbal phrase ‘pāvāṭai ēṟakkaṭavōm’has to be taken in a figurative sense of ‘entering’ or ‘getting admission’ into the town.”(S.Y Pg. 43)
இப்படிக்கு இக்கல் எழுதி நாட்டிக்-குடுத்தொம் படினேண்பூமி தேசித் திசை விளங்கு திசை ஆயிரத்தைந்நூற்றுவரோம் – இப்படிக்கு – thus, இக்கல் எழுதி நாட்டிக் – have written (inscribed) and erected (நாட்டடி குடுத்தொம்) this stone. படினேண்பூமி தேசித் திசை விளங்கு – renowned in eighteen lands and directions திசை ஆயிரத்தைந்நூற்றுவரோம் – the 500 of the 1000 directions.
அறமறவேற்க அறமேய் துணை – (A final word of advise) ‘Let charity not be forgotten’ (அறம் மறவே) ‘Charity alone is the companion’ (அறமே துணை).
Fully translated, the inscription gives a short glimpse into the commercial transactions (duties and levies) and social mileu (as gleaned from the honorific titles and customs) of what is most certainly a Tamil settlement of merchants in Sumatra. I have rewritten Subbarayulu’s translation a bit, but this is largely inspired by the translation in the book.
“Let good things happen.On this 1010th Śaka year in the Māsi month. We, who are renowned in all directions and in the 18 lands – the 500 of the 1000 directions, have met in Barus, the city which protects merchants and is blessed by Durga, and granted these gifts to our sons the captain of the city – merchant of the locality(nakara-sēnāpati-nāṭṭu-ceṭṭiyār) and the man of the merchants of the 18 countriesand the elephant tamers. The captain of the ship and its oarsmen shall pay the fee of añcutuṇṭāyamin gold according to the value of muskand shall be granted entry to the town. Thus we, who are renowned in all directions and in the 18 lands – the 500 of the 1000 directions, have written and erected this stone. Donot forget charity, it is your only companion”
This post is based in a reading of U.V.Swaminathan Iyer’s autobiography – என் சரித்திரம் (My History). To know more about U.Ve.Sa please navigate to the wiki.
என் சரித்திரம் – by U.V.Swaminathan Iyer (Source: Amazon)
I have translated a section from the Autobiography that deals with the author’s life in Kunnam after he moved there from Ariyalur.
“ஸ்தலங்களப்பற்றிய வரலாறுகளைத் தெரிந்துகொள்வதில் அக்காலத்தினருக்கு அதிக விருப்பம் இருந்தது. ச்தலத்தில் விருக்ஷம், மூர்த்திகளின் திருனாமம், வழிபட்டவர்கள் வரலாறு, தீர்த்த விசெஷம் முதலிய விஷயங்களை அங்கங்கே உள்ளவர்கள் நன்றால் தெரிந்துகொண்டு மற்றவர்களுக்குச் சொல்வார்கள். தங்கள் ஊர் சிறந்த ஸ்தலமென்றும் பலவகையான மகாத்மியங்களை உடையதென்றும், சொல்லிக்கொல்வதில் அவர்களுக்கு ஒரு திருப்தி இருந்தது. குன்னத்தின் ஸ்தல மாகாத்மியங்களை என் தந்தையார் விசாரிக்கத் தொடங்கினார். நானும் அவற்றைத் தெரிந்துகொண்டேன்.
மிகச் சிறந்த ஸ்தலங்களுக்கு சென்று அங்குள்ள மூர்த்திகள் பால் ஈடுபட்டவர்கள் தங்கள் ஊரிலும் அந்த ஸ்தலங்களைப் போன்ற அமைப்புக்களை உண்டக்கி வழிபடுதல் பழங்காலத்து வழக்கம். பெரிய புராணத்தை இயற்றிய சேக்கிழார் சோழ நாட்டிலுள்ள திருனாகெசுவரமென்றும் சிவ ஸ்தலத்தில் ஈடுபாடுடையவர். அவர் சென்னைக்கு அருகே உள்ள தம் ஊராகிய குன்றத்தூரிலும் ஒரு திருனாகேசுவரத்தை உண்டாக்கினார். நடுனாட்டில் பெண்ணையாற்றங்கரையில் ஶ்ரீரங்கம், ஜம்புகேசுவரம், தாயுமானவர் கோயில் என்னும் மூன்று ஸ்தலங்களுக்கும் பிரதியாக மூன்று ஸ்தலங்கள் உள்ளன. அருயலூரில் உள்ள ஆலந்துறெசர் கோயில் தேவார ஸ்தலமாகிய கீழை பழுவூரிலுள்ள கோயிலைக் கண்டு அமைத்ததேயாகும். இவ்வாறே கும்பகோணத்தில் கும்பேசுவரைத் தரிசித்த ஒருவர் குன்னத்தில் ஒரு கோயில் நிருமித்து அங்கே பிரதிஷ்டை செய்த மூர்த்திக்கு ஆதி கும்பேசரென்னும் திருனாமத்தையும் அம்பிகைக்கு மன்களாம்பிகை என்னும் பெயரையும் இட்டனர். அன்றியும் கும்பக்கொணத்துக்குக் கிழக்கே திருவடைமருதூர் இருப்பது போலக் குன்றத்திற்குக் கிழக்கே வெண்மணி என்னும் ஊர் இருக்கிறது. திருவடைமருதூருக்கு மத்தியார்ஜுனம் என்று பெயர். அதற்கு வெண்மையாகிய இருதயாகாசத்தின் மத்தியென்று பொருள் செய்து, திருவடைமருதூர் ஆகஅசத்திற்குச் சமானமானதென்று தத்துவார்த்தம் கூறுவார் சிலர். வெண்மணி என்னும் பெயர் மத்தியார்ஜுனமென்னும் பெயரோடு ஒருவாறு ஒப்புமையிடையதாகவே, அவ்வூரில் தோன்றிய கோயில் மூர்த்திக்கு ஆதி மகாலிங்கமென்ற திருனாமம் உண்டயிற்று. மகாலிங்கமென்பது திருவிடைமருதூர் ஸ்வாமியின் திருனாமம். பிருகத் குச நாயகியென்பதே இரண்டிடங்களிலும் உள்ள அம்விகையின் திருனாமம். இத்தகைய அமைப்புக்களால் ஆலய வழிபாட்டைப் பழங்காலத்தில் எவ்வளவு அவசியமானதாகக் கருதின ரென்பதை உணரலாம். என் இளமையிலும் அன்னிலை மாறாமலே இருந்தது.”
(Text is taken without modifcation from the Author’s Autobigraphy – என் சரித்திரம்)
Translated as
“In those times people showed immense interest in learning about the history of places of worship (ஸ்தலங்கள்). The locals used to learn about the trees present in the ஸ்தலம், the names of the deities (this is not the perfect translation of மூர்த்தி), the histories of those who worshipped there (வழிப்பட்டவர்கள்) and the significance of the pilgrimage and share it with others (who visited). They found satisfaction in claiming that their ஸ்தலம் was the best, and had several glories (மகாத்மியங்கள்). My father began to investigate the glories of the sthalas of Kunnam. I too began to learn about them.
To visit great places of worship and then construct similar temples in their home towns was a practice prevalent among people since long. Sekkizhaar, who composed the Periya Puraanam was fond of the temple in Thirunageshwaram in Chola Country. He created a Thirunageshwaram in his native place – Kundratthur near Chennai. In the central country ( நடு நாடு) , there are replicas of the three great Sthalams – Srirangam, Jambukeswaram and Thaayumanavar Kovil. The Alandhuresar Kovil in Ariyalur was inspired by the Temple in Kizhai Pazhuvoor, which has been mentioned in the Thevaram poems. Similarly, somebody who worshipped Kumbeshwarar in Kumbakonam, constructed a temple in Kunnam and named the male deity Adi Kumbeshar and the female deity as Mangalaambikai. Besides, just as Thiruvadaimaruthoor lies to the east of Kumbakonam, Venmani lies to the east of Kunnam. Thiruvadaimaruthoor is also known as Madhyaarjunam. Some people take this to mean “the white centre of the subtle heart of the sky (இருதயாகாசம்)”, and consider Thiruvidaimaruthoor to be equivalent to the sky itself. Since Venmani ( வேண்மை means whiteness ) and Madhyaarjunam ( अर्जुन: – means ‘White or clear’ in Sanskrit) are similar in meaning, the name of the deity in Venmani came to be known as Mahalingam, which is also the name of the deity in Thiruvidaimaruthoor. Brhadkusanayaki is the name of the female deity in both the places. These traditions and practices inidcate the extent to which temple worship was considered essential in earlier times. The situation was the same during my youth.”
This post is based on a reading of War! What is it good for? by Ian Morris and the text of a lecture given by Leigh R. Wright in 1972 (reproduced in the Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 12 (1972), pp. 29-40 (12 pages)) titled – Rajah James Brooke and Sarawak: An anomaly in the British Colonial Scene.
James Brooke – The first white Rajah of Sarawak (Picture Credit – Wikipedia)
First, a summary of the geographical context and a strongly imperial view of the social and political context in which we can track Sir (he was knighted) James Brooke. The island of Borneo (indicated by the marker in the map below) is quite obvioulsy of great strategic importance. Given the various tussles between the European powers over trade routes in the 19th century, an island located to the east of the Malacca Straits was bound to be of great interest and value.
The island of Borneo (Screen Grab from Google Maps)
As Leigh R. Wright puts it in his lecture:
Borneo was of concern to Britain as the guardian of the eastern flank of the South China Sea route to the China coast, and was to assume, gradually, more strategic value as first France and later Germany began colonial operations in the area
Rajah James Brooke and Sarawak: An anomaly in the British Colonial Scene. (Leigh R. Wright) – Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 12 (1972), pp. 29-40 (12 pages)
As with their other colonies, the British believed that the island could use the civilizing influence of British rule. All the ingredients for the ‘civilizing mission’ of the British were present. Pirates were harassing British ships. The rulers were callous and cruel. And on top of all this, there were fierce (pagan) headhunters – the Dayaks – inhabiting the island. As the historian Lenox Mills puts it:
The rule of the Malays was as weak as it was cruel and oppressive; idividually brave, they were unable to prevent their state from crubling to pieces before their eyes….
The Malay nobles appear to have divided their time between intrigue and dissipation at Brunei Town, and the oppression of their Dayak subjects…
This quote is attributed to Lenox Mills. I have taken it from – Rajah James Brooke and Sarawak: An anomaly in the British Colonial Scene. (Leigh R. Wright) – Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 12 (1972), pp. 29-40 (12 pages)
This then was what the British thought of the natives. Globally, Europe had conquered or was in the process of conquering most of the world. The stage is set – a strategic island, ‘barely civilized’ natives and most importantly the conditions that enabled characters like James Brooke to exist and thrive (I shall describe the exploits of the white Rajah momentarily).
James Brooke’s story begins in Benares on the banks of the Ganga where he was born in 1803 and lived until the age of 12. He entered the military service of the East India company and was injured in the first Anglo-Burmese war in 1825. After this he resigned from the company. In 1835, he inherited the then considerable sum of 30,000 pounds after his father’s death. With this money James bought a schooner (a sailing vessel) – named the Royalist – fitted it with canons and set sail for Borneo in 1838.
Generic illustration of a schooner. Source: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/schooner
At this time, the Sultan of Brunei was Omar Ali Saifuddin. Sarawak (shown in the map) was the scene of a rebellion by local Malay chiefs and the Sultan had sent Raja Muda Hasim to suppress the rebellion (he was not very successful). Several Singapore based vessels had been attacked by pirates from Borneo and their crews had been sold into slavery. Brooke first met Muda Hasim and his brother Bedruddin in Saraway in 1839. He returned in 1840 and had convinced himself that his involvement in bringing the rebellion to an end would be worthwhile. Below is Brooke’s own account of the proceedings:
Under the guns of the Royalist, and with a small body of men to protect me personally, and the great majority of all classes with me, it is not surprising that the negotiation proceeded rapidly to a favorable issue. The document was quickly drawn up, sealed, signed and delivered; and on the 24th of September 1841, I was declared Rajah and Governor of Sarawak amidst the roar of canon, and a general display of flags and banners from the shore and boats on the river.
This quote is attributed to James Brooke himself. I have taken it from – Rajah James Brooke and Sarawak: An anomaly in the British Colonial Scene. (Leigh R. Wright) – Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 12 (1972), pp. 29-40 (12 pages)
So we have an enterprising voyager, who buys a boat and sets sail to a kingdom facing internal strife. In about a year, he succeeds in negotiating a settlement between the warring parties and is crowned king of the province (Sarawak) in the process. Such ‘Sara-whacking’ was truly a unique feature of the time. This is not the end of Brooke’s achievements. By the end of the decade, he had manouvered himself into 3 posts! The kingdom of Sarawak was his – he was the Sovereign there. He was also the consul to Brunei and the governor of the British colony of Labuan (which the British had purchased from Brunei in 1847). A unique set of conflicts of interest. Finally after 3 generations of white Rajahs had ruled Sarawak, the British government took over in 1946 in exchage for a pension.
The imperial start up of Sarawak had found a buyer and the founders settled for a very generous sum. Leigh Wright sums up how James Brooke was seen in Britain of the mid 19th century and I am quoting in full to conclude the post. The idea of all native people being uncivilized barbarians is of course silly. Even sillier is the image that many Europeans seem to have had of themselves – benevolent civilizers nudging the heathens towards the right path. But that was the flavor of the age, and being truly righteous and reasonable is always easier in retrospect.
Brooke was usually presented in a highly romantic light – the best type of British export, the humanitarian colonial who helped penetrate the barbaric darkness of remote Borneo and who was holding the thin precious line of civilization. Joseph Conrad and later, Somerset Maugham, added to the romance and colour surrounding the Borneo and Malay world of which Brooke was an important part.
Rajah James Brooke and Sarawak: An anomaly in the British Colonial Scene. (Leigh R. Wright) – Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 12 (1972), pp. 29-40 (12 pages)
![En Sarithiram (Tamil Edition) by [U.Ve.Swaminatha Iyer]](https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/41ZgToFUhGL.jpg)
praśasti
